Pitesti
City, capital of Arges judet (county), south-central Romania. It lies 70 miles (110 km) northwest of Bucharest and is situated in the Arges River valley, there sheltered by surrounding hills. Pitesti developed in the Middle Ages as a trading centre between the mountainous Transylvania region and the Danube Plain. It is first documented in 1388, though Roman coins and relics have been
Gauge Theory
Class of quantum field theory, a mathematical theory involving both quantum mechanics and Einstein's special theory of relativity that is commonly used to describe subatomic particles and their associated wave fields. In a gauge theory there is a group of transformations of the field variables (gauge transformations) that leaves the basic physics of the quantum
Kamensk-shakhtinsky
Also spelled �Kamensk-
Fable, Parable, And Allegory, Medieval allegory
Erich Auerbach, Dante als Dichter der irdischen Welt (1929; Eng. trans., Dante: Poet of the Secular World, 1961); M.W. Bloomfield, �Symbolism in Medieval Literature,� Modern Philology, 56:73 - 81 (1958), and Piers Plowman As a Fourteenth-Century Apocalypse (1962); Edgar de Bruyne, �tudes d'esth�tique m�di�vale, 3 vol. (1946); M.D. Chenu, La Th�ologie au douzi�me si�cle (1957; Eng. trans. of nine selected essays, Nature, Man, and Society in the Twelfth Century, 1968); E.R. Curtius, Europ�ische Literatur und lateinisches Mittelalter (1948; Eng. trans., European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages, 1953); Raymond Klibansky, The Continuity of the Platonic Tradition During the Middle Ages (1939); C.S. Lewis, The Discarded Image: An Introduction to Medieval and Renaissance Literature (1964); Joseph A. Mazzeo, Medieval Cultural Tradition in Dante's Comedy (1960); D.W. Robertson and B.F. Huppe, Piers Plowman and Scriptural Tradition (1951); Charles Singleton, Dante Studies, vol. 1, Commedia (1954).
Algeria, Nationalist movements
Algerian nationalism developed out of three different tendencies. The first consisted of Algerians who had gained access to French education and earned their living in the French sector. Often called assimilationists, they pursued gradualist, reformist tactics, shunned illegal actions, and were prepared to consider permanent union with France if the rights
Italian Liberal Party
The Liberal Party was first formed as a parliamentary group within the Piedmont assembly in 1848 by Count Camillo di Cavour, who eventually brought about the unification of Italy and became
Br�hl, Heinrich, Graf Von (count Of)
Rising rapidly under Augustus II the Strong,
Stafford
Founded by Aethelflaed, daughter of Alfred the Great, the town of Stafford had its own mint from the reign of Aethelstan to that of Henry II. Stafford town was chartered in
Samuelson, Paul
Samuelson was educated at the University of Chicago (B.A., 1935) and at Harvard University (Ph.D., 1941). He became a professor of economics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1940. Samuelson also served as an economic
Literature, France.
Many important French intellectuals from the postwar period were honoured in 1993, among them Roland Barthes, Raymond Aron, Jacques Lacan, and Claude Levi-Strauss. The first volume in the Oeuvres compl�tes of Roland Barthes, who died in 1980, appeared, bringing together all of his works published between 1942 and 1965 as well as a few previously unpublished ones. This volume permitted
Cinquefoil
(genus Potentilla), any of many flowering plants of the rose family (Rosaceae), comprising about 500 species of herbs and shrubs. The common name, which means �five-leaved,� refers to the number of leaflets in the compound leaf; some species, however, have three or seven leaflets. Most of the species are native to the North Temperate Zone and the Arctic and are
Gwandu
Originally settled by the Kebbawa, a subgroup of the Hausa people, the town was named for the surrounding gandu (�royal farmlands�) that formerly belonged to Muhammadu Kanta, who founded the Kebbi kingdom in the 16th century. Although Fulani
David, F�licien-c�sar
David was chapelmaster at the Saint-Sauveur Cathedral at Aix-en-Provence (1829) and in 1830 studied at the Paris Conservatoire. The following year he joined the socialist brotherhood of the Saint-Simonians, becoming their
Tsonga
The Tsonga were formerly organized as independent peoples, each occupying its own territory and named for a powerful, dominant patrilineage. Early
Conseil D'�tat
(French: �Council of State�), highest court in France for issues and cases involving public administration. Its origin dates back to 1302, though it was extensively reorganized under Napoleon and was given further powers in 1872. It has long had the responsibility of deciding or advising on state issues and legislative measures submitted to it by the sovereign or, later, by the
Young, Andrew
Young was reared in a middle-class black family, attended segregated Southern schools, and later entered Howard University (Washington, D.C.) as a premed student. But he turned to the ministry and graduated in 1955 from the Hartford Theological Seminary (Hartford, Conn.) with a divinity
Condenser
Device for reducing a gas or vapour to a liquid. Condensers are employed in power plants to condense exhaust steam from turbines and in refrigeration plants to condense refrigerant vapours, such as ammonia and fluorinated hydrocarbons. The petroleum and chemical industries employ condensers for the condensation of hydrocarbons and other chemical vapours.
Lophospira
Genus of extinct gastropods (snails) found as fossils in marine rocks of Ordovician to Devonian age (505 million to 360 million years old). The shell consists of a series of whorls arranged much like a series of ascending steps, each successive whorl smaller than the one below it. The apex of the shell is closed by a small cone-shaped whorl.
Huygens, Christiaan
Huygens was from a wealthy and distinguished middle-class family. His father, Constantijn Huygens,
Earth, Generation of a magnetospheric electric field
An important consequence of reconnection is that it produces a magnetospheric electric field, as does viscous interaction. This comes about as a result of the connection between the interplanetary and geomagnetic fields. This process can be understood as follows. In the solar wind the Lorentz force separates positive and negative charges, just as it does in the
Pierced Work
In metalwork, perforations created for decorative or functional effect or both; the French term for such work is ajour�. Both hand-operated and mechanical tools such as saws, drills, chisels, and punches are used. The principal present-day exponents of this ancient technique are perhaps Asiatic Indian craftsmen. In European metalwork - apart from its functional and
Fisher, Irving
Fisher was educated at Yale University (B.A., 1888; Ph.D., 1891), where he remained to teach mathematics (1892 - 95) and economics (1895 - 1935). In The Purchasing Power of Money (1911), he developed the modern concept
Frederick
County, northern Maryland, U.S., bounded by Pennsylvania to the north, the Monocacy River to the northeast, Virginia to the southwest (the Potomac River constituting the border), and the Blue Ridge Mountains to the west. It consists of a piedmont region bisected north-south by the valley of the Monocacy. Parklands include Cunningham Falls State Park and Catoctin Mountain
Bevan, Aneurin
The son of
Japan Trench
Deep submarine trench lying east of the Japanese islands, in the floor of the western North Pacific Ocean. It is one of a series of depressions stretching south from the Kuril Trench and the Bonin Trench to the Mariana Trench. The 27,929-foot (8,513-metre) Tuscarora Deep (north) was once considered the deepest point in the world (subsequently found to be in the Mariana Trench).
Smith Act
Formally �Alien Registration Act of 1940� U.S. federal law passed in 1940 that made it a criminal offense to advocate violent overthrow of the government or to organize or be a member of any group or society devoted to such advocacy. After World War II this statute was made the basis of a series of prosecutions against leaders of the Communist Party and the Socialist Workers Party. The conviction of the principal
Sarasota
City, seat (1921) of Sarasota county, west-central Florida, U.S. It lies along Sarasota Bay (an arm of the Gulf of Mexico), about 60 miles (95 km) south of Tampa. Sarasota, variously spelled Sara Zota, Sarazota, and Sarasote, appeared on maps in the 1700s, but the origin of the place-name is uncertain; one explanation is that it may have been derived from a Spanish term meaning �a place of dancing.� The
Chaucer, Geoffrey
The outstanding English poet before Shakespeare and �the first finder of our language.� His The Canterbury Tales ranks as one of the greatest poetic works in English. He also contributed importantly in the second half of the 14th century to the management of public affairs as courtier, diplomat, and civil servant. In that career he was trusted and
Farinati, Paolo
Farinati's father, Giovanni Battista, was also a painter and may have been his first master; later he probably worked under Nicol� Giolfino. Farinati was active almost entirely in Verona. According to Carlo Ridolfi, a Madonna painted by Farinati attracted the
Avil�
City, Asturias provincia and comunidad aut�noma (�autonomous community�), northwestern Spain. It lies along the R�a (inlet) de Avil�s, an inlet of the Bay of Biscay. A summer resort with beaches at nearby Salinas, the city has an iron and steel industry and a fishing fleet, and it exports coal from the Asturias mines. Avil�s is rich in medieval architecture, its outstanding
